Addressing International Legal and Ethical Issues Simulation Summary Essay

Addressing International Legal and Ethical Issues Simulation Summary - Essay Example While taking legal action against a foreign business partner based in another country, there often exists certain practical considerations that need to be taken into account. Contextually, the laws prevailing in the host country may not be the same as in the domestic environment and may vary drastically. Moreover, the culture of the host nation as well as the ethical values possessed by foreign business partner may not place the same degree of importance to the aspects such as trust and belief (Aliment, 2009). Consequently, it is necessary for the guest business partner to consider and get acquainted with local values, norms and ethics for seeking legal action against a foreign business partner. With respect to CadMex Pharma company, its partnering company i.e. Gentura is located in Candor country. There are certain factors that may work against CadMex’s decisions to grant sublicensing agreements. It should be noted that a company having a number of sublicensing agreements is vulnerable to face lawsuits, if the third parties such as workers are involved in any kind of property damages or related activities. In other words, CadMex will be liable for any damages occurring due to any third party negligence. When, the local customs and laws conflict with the customs and laws of an organization operating abroad, essentially the local customs and laws of the particular country in which the company is located prevails. A company operating abroad has to abide by the laws, value the ethics and respect the culture of the host nation, failure to do so may render the company to attract legal actions against for not abiding by the rules and the regulations of the host country. Such legal actions may hurt the business relationship immensely and create misunderstanding against each other. I believe that local laws, ethics and cultural aspects are closely related with each other. If the

Problem Questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Problem Questions - Essay Example This is whereby more than one person have right of ownership of the same property regardless of the share of each person(s) in the property. However, each person has distinct rights of possession in the property from the other co-owners though they all have absolute right to the entire property. Under common tenancy, each of the co-owners has right to do what they wishes with their right of ownership to the property. Therefore, co-owners can pass their right to the possession of the property to their heirs if they so wish or can even sell their property any time they fill like. Under such situation, the third party who has inherited or has purchased the property from another person will acquire absolute right of co-ownership with the other existing co-owners. Under common tenancy, each co-owner has personal liability for payment of the property rates, maintenance fees and refurbishment cost. However, if one of the co-owners bears the entire refurbishment and maintenance charges, they have a right to claim for reimbursement from the other co-owners. ... He also paid for the repair of the house and for installation of a new kitchen as well as for electricity and gas bills from his own earnings. However, there was no agreement to show the form of relationship that existed in the ownership of the estate either at present or in the future. According to their agreement, the estate was written in the name of Amaryllis.3 They have continued to live in the same house since then. In my view, by the virtue of their conduct and mutual agreement to live together the two co-owners had entered in a common tenancy. Under this form of ownership, there was no distinction as to what proportion of the property each of the two owns. Both Amaryllis and Basil have equal access to the property and can do anything they wish with the property. However, the parties should be careful with their deeds in order to avoid infringing the rights of each party.4 Therefore, each of the party may use the property according to their wishes, but should not interfere wit h the right of the other party. Under common tenancy, each of the co-owner of the property has a right to sell or to transfer the right to another person.5 Under such a situation, the third party to whom the property has been transferred to acquire absolute light similar to that which was held by the previous owner. In the light of this information, it can be argued that in the situation where Amaryllis invited her cousin Cecily to live in the estate with her, Amaryllis agreed to share her right in the property with Basil, but Cecily had no so such right as long as Amaryllis was in the estate.6 Therefore, Cecily could only enjoy limited rights as a share of what Amaryllis enjoyed and should in no way appear to enjoy

Police and Society Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Police and Society Assignment - Essay Example Lately, in London, disgraces revolved around police involvement in and disbursements from organized crime, especially in drug squads and obscene publication squads. Other scandals include beating up of suspects, perjury, and tampering with confessional evidence. The Metropolitan Service recently investigated cases, which have brought in more attention to officers, mostly in specialized squads, benefiting from their position, such as through theft of money, protection of criminals, and the resale of detained drugs (Lesage, 2005). An increase in recognition of the prevalent nature of police corruption has resulted in significant developments in Wales and England. Task forces are being put in place to create good practice guidance in preventing corruption by the police. At a force level, corruption concerns and their professional standards have resulted in institution of ‘professional stands units’ in most of the police forces in Wales and England, which are dedicated to in vestigating and identifying corruption, misconduct, fraud, domestic violence, racist, sexist, or homophobic behavior, spurious claims of sickness to be granted a sick leave, and criminality among police staff. Principles of Police ethics and methods of accountability to deter police corruption Promoting an ethical culture â€Å"Policing by example† is one of the police strategies that have been incorporated in West Midlands, and involves various themes to set high standards of behavior in professional practices and in dealing with the public. It emphasizes high standards in the workplace and the significance of leadership. This ensures that harassment and other victimization forms are not tolerated, including the protection of policemen who report unethical actions among colleagues. â€Å"Policing by example† is an idea that can be promoted in other parts of the UK through glossy documents distributed in major police forces and training intended to raise awareness and guidance to challenge unacceptable behavior. There should be developments in political and public culture of civil liberties and individual rights in the UK to encourage more open public criticism on ethics of the police, especially in relation to minorities. Groups and communities should be organized to represent those who can rally community opinion and criticize police practice, which is in support of more external and legal regulation. It is logical to assume that this principle towards special interest group alarm about civil or legal rights and minority claims will increase open support for more aggressive governance and civil regulation of the police. Consequently, the government will be forced to put in place these new and more aggressive national demands for police accountability. The new Police accountability Basing on a neo-liberal critique of traditional management and government of the police, new philosophies and internal self-governance forms are being proposed. The e ntire political governance of the police is shifting away from the old models of reactive accountability that depend on the application of hierarchical, external legal rules, central regulations, and discipline that is punishment-centered. This traditional model of public review or accountability has failed to provide effective police accountabi

The History of the Internet Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The History of the Internet - Research Paper Example At the height of Cold War, in 1962, the American Government was devising a plan that would enable the military to maintain its command and control system in an event of nuclear attack on the US. The RAND Corporation was given the task to conduct research and studies to find how the US army could maintain its command and control system if any of US cities come under nuclear attack. After due deliberation and diversified studies, Rand Paul Baran from RAND Corporation submitted his final proposal for a Packet Switched Network (Ruthfield 1995). ARPA, a branch of US department of defense ARPANET awarded a contract to BBN to develop a decentralized architecture network. BBN constructed physical network linking four locations University of California at Los Angeles, SRI (in Stanford), University of California at Santa Barbara, and University of Utah. According to the record, the network was connected through a 50 Kbps circuits on wire (Ruthfield 1995). By 1973, it was established that besides ARPANET other networks have come into a successful existence like National Physical Laboratory in England and the scientific network CYCLADES in France. Undoubtedly, these different networks with different approaches are the foundation of our modern internet. CYCLADES, being a commercial network, had many commercial users who began transferring data from one user to the other. Here Packet switching was born (Dave n.d). In 1976, Dr. Robert M. Metcalfe developed Ethernet, which was a crucial invention to moving data faster through a coaxial cable. Following, Package Satellite Project, SATNET came into existence which connected United States with Europe thus bringing about the first intercontinental Internet in the history (Dave n.d). The same year ARPANET started working on a protocol, later to be called, TCP/IP to bring together different networks without interfering their basic structure. With the invention of TCP/IP protocol it became possible to connect

The Role and Meaning of Jesus Miracles Essay Example for Free

The Role and Meaning of Jesus Miracles Essay Abstract: Jesus has done so many miracles during His life in this Earth. There were hundreds of miracles which served as an eye opener for those people who do not believe in Him. Through those miracles, their spiritual eyes were opened and their ears have heard of the truth that Jesus was the one sent by God to save Humanity and that He deserves all praises and adoration. The miracles also showed that anything is possible with Jesus. There is nothing in which He cannot do. There is none for He can do and accomplish all things if He wants it to happen. The Role and Meaning of Jesus Miracles Jesus ministry started when he was already 33 years old. But even if it started that late, He still has accomplished so many things that brought great changes in the lives of those unbelieving individuals. He did many miraculous things that have made the Israelites and the Pharisees stand in awe of it. Jesus did those miracles to show His Great Power, His Healing Touch and His Great love. His Glory was manifested through his miraculous deeds. Even though, many opposed to what He is doing because according to them it was unlawful, but still it did not stop Him from doing good for the others. Still, He continued doing what is right and what God has planned for the human beings. Many were Jesus’ opponents that time; those were the Sadducees and the Pharisees. They were the great hypocrites of all time. The judged Jesus according to what their selfish hearts and minds dictates. They insulted the greatness and the power of Jesus. They would not believe that Jesus was the mighty King that was promised to save their land. What they perceive was a baby born in a kingdom, born with a crown and sceptre with all the treasures and gold’s of his kingdom. But these were all wrong. God’s plan was different. What he did was to send the Saviour Jesus in this world in the hands of ordinary people, a carpenter and an ordinary woman. What Jesus’ only want is for us to have an abundant health and prosperous life. He does not want us to suffer inequities. He loves us so much that He is willing to do all things just for us, to the extent that He died on the cross just for us. For the redemption and payment for our sins. But before He died and was crucified, He left us with many miraculous things which brought great impacts on our being. One of those many miracles was, Jesus Heals a Crippled Man. In this story, Jesus was on Capernaum when while teaching, their were four men who came near him and brought with them a cripple man. They saw that there many people gathered, so they decided to make a hole in the roof where Jesus was preaching and there they let the crippled man see and be healed by Jesus. Jesus was amazed by the faith of those people who accompanied the cripple man and as well the cripple man himself. Then Jesus commanded the man to stand up and pick up his mat, when the crippled man did it, he was amazed because he can finally walk. Jesus also said to his friends that their sins were already forgiven because of their great faith, many reacted with this. They say, that Jesus does not have any right to forgive only God do. Jesus then told him, that He has every right to say it because He is the Son of God. One time, He also healed a man but this time with a cripple hand. It was during Sabbath, and many Pharisees condemned Jesus for healing during Sabbath, they it is unlawful. For Jesus, it does not matter if it is during Sabbath or not, as long as someone is healed and made good. Days or important dates do not matter as long as you are doing well for others. In this miracle Jesus showed that Great faith is needed for us to be saved and healed. Nothing is more important than having faith. Faith is the substance of things we are expecting and hoping while we do not see those things yet. We have great faith that things will happen, if we are sick, we should have faith in Jesus, that He will heal and cure us from all our sickness. All we have to hold is just faith, even little faith can do great things, it can already move giant mountains and clear our way. Jesus desires to see that faith within us; He cannot do what He wants in our lives, like salvation, healing and prosperity if we do not have that great faith within out hearts. A faith that never waivers, that never ceases or stops but a faith that is firm, that will stand the test of time even great trial, circumstance and travails will come on our way. Jesus desires for us great things in life, that is first we should be saved by His blood and we should believe in Him, that He is the healer and the Messiah which God sent in this Earth for us. Jesus heals a sick woman and made alive a dying girl. In this event, Jesus was at the shore in Galilee when Jairus approached Him and asked His help because his daughter is about to die already. Jesus the immediately responded and went with him. But while Jesus was on His way, He noticed that someone touched His cloak. When He looked around He saw a woman. The women then plead Jesus to heal her because she was having hemorrhage for 12 years already. Immediately, Jesus healed her by just speaking His word. Jesus promised her that all the days of her life; she will be in freedom from diseases and pain. But while Jesus was healing her, many people came into them and told the bad news that Jairus’ daughter already died. They all worried and fret about this. Upon hearing this, Jesus told and encourages Jairus to just believe and have faith to God. When they reached home, Jesus immediately touched the dead girl and utter words of life which was â€Å"Talitha, Koum† meaning, â€Å"little girl get up!† Then immediately the girl was made alive again. Upon seeing this, many were again amazed by what He did. Again, because of their great faith, Jesus has able to manifest His love and did miracle for them. The bleeding woman trusted Jesus so much that she took every chance just to get the attention of Jesus for her to be healed. In the case of Jairus, in the very first place he already sought Jesus help and even if the news came that his daughter already died, Jairus still has the faith and hope to Jesus that He will be able to heal and make alive again his daughter. And Jairus was not wrong. Indeed Jesus touched his daughter and she was made alive again. In these two miracles that Jesus again was made known as an ever healing one. Faith was still the main ingredient why Jesus manifested His Healing and miraculous power to the bleeding woman and to Jairus as well. Jesus heals a Man who was deaf and could hardly talk. In this miracle, a man who was deaf and has a big difficulty in talking was brought by the people believing that He will be healed also by Jesus as what He did to other people. They told Jesus to just touch him. And so, the man was healed. He was then able to hear very clearly and say words with no difficulty anymore. Because of their belief that Jesus was able the man was healed. Upon seeing the miracle happened, they praised Jesus. They said that Jesus is good and that He is such a great one for He has healed many people with all kinds of diseases already. Jesus heals the boy. In this miracle, Jesus handled a boy who was possessed by a demon. Jesus, at first, was upset because they did not immediately brought the boy to her. Jesus asked the condition of the child and then the man who brought the child to Him, asked Jesus if He could help and upon hearing this Jesus immediately reacted. He asked why does those man question if He can, do not they know that anything is possible with Him. He is the Messiah and the Great Mighty God; therefore everything will be done and accomplished by Him. So, Jesus drove away the demon inside the boy’s body. When the disciples saw this, they asked God why they could not do it themselves, then Jesus answered that what they only lack is prayer and faith. Those are just some of the many miracles that Jesus has performed during the three years of his ministry. There are still many of them that showed how great Jesus is. How He healed those people who were seeking Him with all their hearts with great faith, believing that Jesus will be able to free them from all their sickness. The miracles of Jesus manifest His goodness and His everlasting love and concern for us. He does not want us to suffer from anything but give us freedom spiritually and physically. Through the miracles He did, many people came to know and accept Him as Saviour and Redeemer. Doing those miracles was one way of Jesus to tell us that all things are possible if we only just believe and have faith in Him. Jesus came to this world to show how great his love for us is. Jesus even laid down His own life for us through His crucifixion in the Cross. Therefore, because of His goodness; He deserves all our praises and our faith. References: 1. Mark 2: 1-12. Holy Bible New King James Version. Thomas Nelson Publishers. 2. Mark 7: 31-37. Holy Bible Contemporary English Version, Global Edition. 3. Matthew 8: 1-4. Holy Bible Contemporary English Version, Global Edition. 4. Youth Bible. Holy Bible Contemporary English Version, Global Edition. Pages 861-871.

The Impacts Of Invasive Alien Plants

The Impacts Of Invasive Alien Plants Chapter 1 Research on the impacts of invasive alien plants (IAP) on biodiversity, ecosystem services and processes have been well documented in the literature. Furthermore, the primary focus of this research was the negative impacts associated with IAPs when there are some benefits associated with these plants. Limited research has also addressed the issue of IAP impact on the livelihoods and well-being of local land-users. Seeing that limited resources are available to address the issue of IAP at large, quantification of stakeholder perception is needed to maximise IAP management. Through this thesis, an investigation into the spread and impacts of IAPs in the rural parts of the Agulhas Plain as well as the perceptions, uses, costs and benefits associated with IAPs and the importance of these plants to the livelihoods of the local communities was carried out. The purpose of this research is to provide a better understanding of the possible impacts of invasive plant species on the livelihoods of people. This local knowledge can aid researchers by providing context specific information about impacts, which can then be used for future conservation actions. Motivation The detrimental effects of IAPs on ecosystems and biodiversity, ecosystem goods and services the economy of human enterprises and human health have been well documented in the literature (e.g. Geesing et al. 2004, Nel et al. 2004, Shackleton et al. 2007). Invasion by alien species have been reported as a major threat to the biodiversity and functioning of sensitive ecosystems (Turpie et al. 2003, Richardson and Van Wilgen 2004, Van Wilgen et al. 2008). It has been shown that invasive species are very successful in competing for resources with native species and can modify fuel loads by changing the amount of litter fall (Behenna et al. 2008). Invasive alien plants are also capable of altering the natural nutrient fluxs by shifting the nitrogen content due to changes in the litter fall (Behenna et al. 2008). Dense stands of acacias along the rivers in the Western Cape replace and exclude native fynbos species (Blanchard and Holmes 2008). Invasive alien plants also pose one of the grea test immediate threats to floral diversity in the fynbos and have the ability capture vast amounts of water (Turpie et al. 2003). In contrast, research exploring the effects of IAPs on the livelihoods of local, rural communities has received little attention (McGarry et al. 2005, Shackleton et al. 2007). Not all of the impacts exerted by IAPs are negative as these plant species is a source of both costs and benefits (Bardsley and Edward-Jones 2006). Various plants have been introduced to South Africa for a variety of purposes (Van Wilgen et al. 2001). These include species intrudes for crop production, timber and firewood, garden ornamentals, for dune stabilisation and hedge plants (Van Wilgen et al. 2001). Several of these have become naturalized and some of the naturalized species are now invasive (Van Wilgen et al. 2001). Costs are experienced when these invasive species impede the functioning of social and ecological systems (Bardsley and Edward-Jones 2006). Benefits, on the other hand, are experienced when the same traits (such as hardiness and high fecundity) that lead to these species becoming invasives, contribute to their usefulness (Bardsley and Edward-Jones 2006). Rural communities are exposed to IAPs in different ways (Shackleton et al. 2007). The outcome is that that these communities have to weigh up the trade-offs between the possible positive benefits of IAPs as a natural resource and the negative impacts exercised by these species on ecosystem goods and services and in turn on human livelihood (Shackleton et al. 2007). It is generally accepted that the negative effects of IAPs on ecosystem goods and services are transferred directly to human well-being (Shackleton et al. 2007). This has been proven otherwise by researchers such as de Neergaard and others (2005), Shackleton and others (2007) and Kull and others (2011) who illustrated that IAPs can be integrated significantly by local communities in their lifestyles as either a source of tannins and timber, for firewood, building material, as well as for medicinal extractions and financial income by selling of firewood. Working for Water (WfW), an IAP eradication programme, was launced in 1995 with the aim of restoring natural capital by controlling invading species and enhance water security (Van Wilgen et al. 1998). Simultaneously, the programme aims to alleviate poverty by providing employment to underprivileged communities (Van Wilgen et al. 1998). To date, the WfW programme has developed into one of the biggest conservation projects in Africa with regard to manpower, costs and impact (Ndhlovu 2011). Immense sponsorships have contributed towards extensive areas being cleared and a large numbers of individuals being employed (Binns et al. 2001, Turpie et al. 2008). Conversely, the socio-economic benefits of the WfW programme have not been wholly assessed regardless of the programmes extensive activities and substantial sponsorships associated with it (Turpie et al. 2008). Additionally, the use of these plants by rural communities is not well understood and seldom integrated into eradication programmes as stated below: The lack of information on the socio-economic impacts of IAS has been singled out as a major barrier to the implementation of comprehensive national IAS management programmes and as one of the main reasons for the failure of IAS issues to feature prominently in the mainstream agenda of most countries (Peter, 2009). Quantification of stakeholder perception on the impacts of IAPs is essential in order authorize an argument for the control and management of invasive plant species (Peter, 2009). Though it is vital to understand anthropogenic impacts on landscapes and ecosystems through ecological knowledge of invasive species, an improved understanding of the social processes is also required to inform both species management and conservation policy (Peter 2009). There is a shortage of information regarding the socio-economic impact of alien species presently found in South Africa. Even in well studied areas such as the Cape Floristic Region, the range of the impact of invasive plants is poorly understood. Additionally, limited research has also been done with regard to the socio-economic impacts of alien eradication programmes in the Western Cape. Consequently, there is a need for comprehensive research that investigates the holistic impacts (both negative and positive) of IAPs on the livelihoods and well-being of local communities. Goals and Objectives Considering the above, the objective of this study was to assess the effects and impacts of IAP infestation on human well-being, with the focus on the effects of IAPs on the livelihoods of rural land users in the Western Cape, South Africa. The main research question that directs the study is as follow: What are the impacts of invasive alien plants on the livelihoods of rural land users? This research question was broken down into seven key questions. These key questions were adapted from the literature (see McGarry et al. 2005). Key Questions What is the significance of the natural environment to the community? What are peoples attitudes towards and perceptions of IAPs ? How important are IAPs for human well-being and livelihoods? Are the IAPs used for sustenance, for domestic requirements, etc.? Are IAPs sold to provide an income? Does the local community perceive IAPs as having a positive or negative impact on spirituality, culture and/or aesthetics? How do IAPs in the area affect the supply of (other) ecosystem goods and services which are important to peoples livelihoods? What are peoples attitudes towards IAP management? What are the impacts of IAP eradication programmes on livelihoods? What is the impact of IAP distribution on land-use practices? What are the long-term and short-term gains and losses for human well-being and livelihood as a result of IAP impact? The study site is highly dependent on areas where rural communities are still highly reliant on generating an income from the land. Additionally, the study site must also comply with the use of IAPs by the local community and in the same light IAPs must be potentially regarded as a problem by the local community. The Agulhas Plain, situated within the Cape Floristic Region (CFR), has been selected as the focus area for this study as it meets the above mentioned criteria. Study area The Agulhas Plain (AP) is located within the CFR which is internationally known as a global biodiversity hotspot (Turpie et al. 2003). The CFR, known for its Mediterranean type climate, is the most floristically rich of the seven diverse biomes allocated in South Africa with an estimated 9600 plant species of which 70% are endemic (Richardson and Sekhran 2009). The AP, comprising an area of 270 000 ha, is located at the southern-most tip of South Africa and is a species-rich area known for its fire-prone coastal lowland fynbos and infertile soils (Richardson and Sekhran 2009, Treurnicht 2010). It is internationally recognised as a centre for endemism (Treurnicht 2010). This area is however increasingly threatened by habitat transformation and alien plant invasion (Turpie et al. 2003), the latter being the focal point of this study. Fynbos wildflower farming and harvesting, particularly from natural vegetation, forms an integral part of this areas economic activity and contributes immensely to this regions agricultural sector (Treurnicht 2010). This has been shown Turpie and others (2003) who stated that natural fynbos vegetation are estimated to be accountable for 57.6% of the CFRs turnover, which were equal to R90.5 million in the year 2000. The Agulhas Plain is practically responsible for the largest part of this turnover (Turpie et al. 2003). Study limitations It was not possible to do a systematic and exhaustive research in all the areas on the Agulhas Plain were IAP infestation occurs due to the time limitation of this study. It was thus decided to do a detailed and comprehensive micro focus i.e. case study on the socio-economic impacts of invasive alien plants and to gather as much consistent information as possible by means of interviews. Elim and the surrounding farming communities were accordingly selected as the study group. Study site selection Elim and the surrounding farming communities were chosen as the best suitable study site according to the following reasons: It was established during the visits prior and during the pilot study that this rural settlement and its neighbouring farms still relies on woody IAPs as either a primary or a supplementary source of energy. It was noted during field visits that the areas surround the settlement as well as the neighbouring farms are invaded to a substantial degree. There has been active alien eradication programmes in the area since 1998 i.e. Working for Water as well as LandCare under the departments of Water Affairs and Agriculture respectively. Thesis outline Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 2 Literature Review Chapter 3 Methods, Results and Discussion Chapter 4 Implications for management and policies

The impact of armed conflict in Nigeria

The impact of armed conflict in Nigeria Many countries in sub-Saharan region in Africa have been plagued with ethnic and religious conflicts. Nigeria has not been immune to such conflicts. The country has and continues to witness high levels of ethnic and anti-sate violence. Ever since independence from Britain in 1960 the African nation of Nigeria has been torn apart by wars, violence and ethnic conflicts. This paper centers on the effect of such conflicts on Nigerian women with a focus on the conflict in Jos, the capital city of Plateau State. The city has continually been rocked by brutal and relentless riots in 1994, 2001, 2008 and most recently in January 2010. These conflicts have brought about extensive destruction of lives and properties. Most significantly, the conflicts have brought about gross human rights violations perpetrated against civilian populations, particularly women and children who apparently make up the most vulnerable group. Considerable work has been done regarding women and armed conflicts. Much of this work has been done by institutions concerned with human rights violations, particularly violations against women. Unfortunately, much of this work has focused on sexual violence against women and has largely ignored other important aspects of violations against women. The purpose of this paper is to consider and highlight a range of ways in which women are affected by armed conflicts (in addition to sexual violence). Using responses from interviews conducted with women who have experienced the most recent conflict in the capital city of Jos in Nigeria, we argue that there is a wide range of ways in which women are affected by armed conflict. For example, armed conflict exacerbates inequalities. These inequalities continue even after the conflicts cease. Our findings show that women experience economic hardships during and after conflict. Furthermore, women are excluded from peace building initiatives that take place during and after armed conflict. Keywords-Armed conflicts, ethnic conflicts, human rights violations, religious conflicts, and womens rights. INTRODUCTION The frequency of conflicts leading to violence and extensive destruction of lives and property especially since the early 80s in many countries of the world can, without exaggeration, be traced to many factors. Some of these factors are political, economic, ethno-religious conflicts and land boundary issues. Most of these conflicts are often presented as either ethnical or religious in nature, and oftentimes both. However these research findings indicate that the underlying fundamental factor that facilitates such ethno-religious conflicts revolves around prevailing economic and political crisis. This is the basic podium for most of the recurring predicaments. Unfortunately, ethno-religious conflicts remain the political, economic and social legacies of three decades which involves perceived marginalization, mal-governance and disrespect for the constitution. The greedy and selfish ways in which the Nigerian political leaders embarked on, in acquiring power at all cost, has overturned the true federal constitution negotiated by the founding leaders. This reveals some of the primary basis for the violent crisis in Jos, Plateau State of Nigeria. BACKGROUND In 2001, a major crisis occurred in Jos, the capital city of Plateau State in the northern part of Nigeria, leading to the destruction of properties and loss of lives. There was also another crisis in 2004, 2008 and the most recent in 2010. The causes of these conflicts are seen as political, ethno-religious and indigenes settlers dispute. In most cases, it is tough to describe the Jos crisis from just the ethnic perspective without observing the political, economic or religious aspect. They are not mutually exclusive. The recurrent crisis in Jos especially the one that occurred in 2010 left a fatal impact on the society. Many people including women and children were killed. The 2010 Jos crisis recorded the highest casualty of women and children in comparison to the previous ones. About 500 women lost their lives in unpleasant circumstances while other women lost their husbands and children as well as their means of livelihood. It is rather unfortunate and unlikely that the leadership of the present government will be able to take the bold step to make required constitution changes to douse the festering ethno-religious tension and violence in many parts of the country. Nigeria is a complex society with a wide variety of religious and cultural allegiance and susceptibility. The least one could do is to come to terms with the reality of the multi-religious status and thus recognize and ensure that the rights of all Nigerians are equally protected. The city of Jos had deadly riots in 2001, 2008 and 2010, and the communal/religious crisis that erupted in Jos (Plateau) in 2001 still causes a lot of clashes in the State till date. It was shocking to many Nigerians that had nursed the notion that Jos was a safe haven for most Christians from other ethnic nationalities who fled from the States dominated by the Islamic Sharia laws. We also observed that most of the conflicts are located in urban areas, and that mostly women and their children suffered the most. Those not killed during the conflict are left to feed and fend for themselves and their children. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Many of these contestations between indigenes and settlers result in violence. As noted, Jos and most of the towns in Plateau State in 1994, 2001, 2004 in which the Beroms, Afizere and others who claim to be indigenes oppose the Hausa/Fulani tribes who are regarded as settlers from the era of the colonial masters who mostly came in to Jos town as miners and merchants. Jos Crisis: A crisis triggered by inequality. It can easily be traced to the deep inequalities in the society. In 2004, a state of emergency was declared in Plateau State (of which Jos is the capital) after which over 200 Muslims were killed in the attacks by Christian militia. In the November 2008 crisis, over 340 people were killed and properties worth billions were burnt when Muslim opposition supporters went on the rampage over alleged election irregularities after they had heard their candidate to head a council had lost to a Christian. In January 2010, being the most recent crisis, more than 500 people were killed mostly women after the Christians protested the construction of a mosque in a Christian area, and after Muslim protesters attacked a Catholic church. It is ironic that such catastrophic and bloody encounters have occurred in Jos, a city which derives its name from an acronym for Jesus Our Saviour. Perhaps, the origin of Jos a former enclave for colonial missionaries and its geographic location aptly described by some as a de facto fault line separating Nigerias mainly Muslim northern part from its mainly Christian southern region. Nigeria is a country of strong prejudice between indigenes and non-indigene natives and settlers, the Nigerian constitution even empowers this ethnic affiliation by giving credence to the State of origin and likewise some political appointments are based on ethnic and state of origin. The crisis in Jos is not immune to the State of Origin contraption the Christians are the natives, while the Muslims are the settlers. Hence the belief remains that the natives are threatened by the increasing population and prominence of the settlers. The natives are neither too keen to share their lands with the settlers nor offer their hands in partnership on the political outfit. The settlers on the other hand, feel cheated and threatened too by the natives whom they feel have failed to recognize them politically and socially despite having co-existed for decades. The fact that the two are on the opposing sides of the religious divide certainly does not help. The cumulative effect of these factors the aftermath of cultural and societal inequality is what has been happening in Jos over the years. METHODOLOGY: This research work is based on qualitative analysis methods. The principle method used is structured in-depth interviews conducted within and outside the conflict zones. Reports were drawn from rural dwellers and persons affected by the conflict including women and youths were interviewed at different times. Reports from government commissions inquiry and other investigation by setup groups were also utilized. The report of the Plateau Peace Conference 2004 was very useful for this paper. Reports from assigned committee at the Institute for Peace and Conflict Resolution after visits to the conflict town were also very useful for this journal work. Some other researchers from the field who were also staff of the Institute for Peace and Conflict Studies similarly gave their report from the field work. Newspaper reports, textbooks and the web were also consulted for the completion of this paper. ETHNIC AND RELIGIOUS VIOLENCE IMPACT ON THE ECONOMY In general, the political instability engendered by frequent communal disputes riots, armed confrontation and breakdown of law and order cannot be attractive for local or foreign investors. Jos, as it is right now from what we physically observed remains a ghost city with houses, market places, factories and company burnt down to ashes. We had met with and interviewed a business tycoon, Alhaji Busari who was a car dealer and narrated his ordeal amidst tears. He said how can this Jos riot be a forgotten incident to me when I practically lost all what I have worked and lived for in life in just one day. Billions of Naira was burnt down, the showroom where cars are parked for display was burnt down to ashes and all the cars on display were destroyed and burnt by the rioters. IMPACT OF THE CRISIS ON WOMEN Gender is thus a socially constructed identity through which roles are assigned at different levels and which can differ according to culture and can be changed by circumstances such as conflict. While the entire community suffers the dire consequences of armed conflict and terrorism, women and girls are particularly affected because of their status in society and their gender. Parties in conflict often rape women with impunity sometimes using systematic rape as a tactic of war and terrorism. A youth activist remarked as follows: The conflict inflicted psychological and emotional pain on both genders. However, the plight of women was particularly pronounced. There was the case of about twenty women and girls captured by the Boghom people and taken to a village called Kangyal in Kanam Local Government Area. The women and their daughters suffered the worst form of sexual abuse as their captors took turns on them every evening for three months. When they were eventually rescued, five of them were pregnant and tested positive to HIV/AIDS test. THE IMPACT OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN This also has to do with violation of human rights of women, in such situation as experienced by women of all ages, who suffer displacement, loss of homes and property, involuntary disappearance of close relatives, poverty, family separation, disintegration and those victims of acts of murder, terrorism, torture, sexual slavery. These spell out the prevailing human right violations and policies of ethnic cleansing in the war-torn and occupied areas. These practices have created inter alia a mass flow of refugees. Such women and children become refugees that no longer have homes or houses over their heads i.e. they become internally displaced persons. According to the research findings, women make up the highest group of casualties. The picture above shows women in Abuja carrying pictures of dead women and children. Mostly women and children constitute about 80 percent of the millions of refugees around the world. Other refugees including internally displaced persons are deprived of their properties, goods and also deprivation of their right to freedom of movement to return to their homes for fear and insecurity. The degree of insecurity and disorientation was identified when the Institute for Peace and Conflict researchers went to the refugee camps in Bukuru, Jos (a south Local Government Area of Plateau State) and were told that thirty-one pregnant women at the internally displaced persons (IDP) camps were delivered of their babies at different camps. Reports from their spokesperson in charge of women in the IDP camps said in an interview that the women who gave birth were earlier taking refuge at the police stations and premises of Bukuru central mosque before they were later taken to another house which was converted to serve as a temporary maternity. Out of the 31 women that put to bed only two babies did not survive. However, the two mothers were in very good conditions. In a newspaper report, one of the nurses in charge of the maternity centers created mentioned that some bullets were removed from some of the pregnant mothers bodies who were shot during the crisis and they had to undergo some operations to stitch them. THE WOMEN WELFARE: Feeding and Clothing Lack of nutritious food in the camps is due to their population, although some Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs) and United Nations (UN) have visited some camp grounds to enhance the supply and distribution of food stuffs and clothing. Different groups have surfaced to donate generously for the refugees. Other repulsive experiences include: Snake bites in the bush while attempting to escape High rate of widowhood Loss of children Premature births due to fear and pressure Mothers abandoning newly born babies due to lack of funds and inability to survive Forced marriages This picture shows some illustrations of the impact of the conflict on women in Wase, Yelwa-shendam and Langtang south local government in Jos. In an interview, Vonnan Dashe, president of the Gani community development association, on 5th November 2004 mentioned that, Women were subjected to violence and hardship because they had to worry about the fate of their children. Some of their children actually got killed and others were wounded while others were raped by the attackers. They were not only physically harassed but also sexually abused and degraded. It was also gathered from our research team that apart from the fact that women were raped, they were also divorced by their husbands, which facilitated a worse emotional stressful and painful condition. The resort to divorce by men whose wives had been sexually abused was a means of dealing with the humiliation acquired from the conflict. EQUAL RIGHTS Even though women were affected greatly by the conflict in obviously negative way, they have been unable to set up networks and support groups to enhance their empowerment in the aftermath of the conflict. This includes the ability to participate in politics and decision making forum. Most of their voices are heard through the voices of men or proxy groups. Women make an important but often unrecognized contribution as peace educators both in families and in their societies. In addressing armed or sectarian conflicts, an active and visible policy of mainstreaming a gender perspective into all policies and programs should be promoted so that before decisions are taken an analysis is made of the effects on women and men respectively. Action should be taken to promote equal participation and opportunities for women in government both at the Federal, State and Local Government levels. There were hundreds of women mostly dressed in black that took to the streets of Nigerias capital city of Abuja and also the central city of Jos in rallies against the Jos massacre. They subsequently demanded that the government put the necessary infrastructure in place to improve on the protection of women and children. This research journal reveals to a large extent how women are streamlined in the policy making groups, politics and in general, all activities. Yet it has not told the whole story, the impact of conflict on women is too profound to be narrated. Most times, they live with the pain, agony, discomfort and under oppression for the rest of their lives. A lot needs to be done, the bridge that cuts across religious, ethnic and cultural is to have women group work together. However they will need to be empowered through capacity building and enhanced controlled communication before such roles can be played. Women need to be equally represented in organizations so as to be able to contribute adequately in matters and issues that have to do with protection of women and their children during and after such conflicts. CONCLUSION It is clear from all the above that women must be involved in matters that has to do with the protection of women and their children. They must prove to the community that they are also relevant and that equality should be practiced when matters that has to do with them comes up especially in politics and decision making. Women should be courageous and exhibit fearless independence in spite of all odds especially where human right issues are involved. Women are meant to bear the image of the community. In political matters, women should not shy away from their right and their voices must also be heard. In all, this must be the new wave. The culture must evolve.